Centromere Location and Chromosome Separation

A centromere is a region on a chromosome that joins sister chromatids. Sister chromatids are double-stranded, replicated chromosomes that form during cell division. The primary function of the centromere is to serve as a place of attachment for spindle fibers  during cell division. The spindle apparatus elongates cells and separates chromosomes  to ensure that each new daughter cell has the correct number of chromosomes at the completion of mitosis and meiosis. The DNA in the centromere region of a chromosome is composed of tightly packed chromatin known as heterochromatin. Heterochromatin is very condensed and is therefore not transcribed. Due to its heterochromatin composition, the centromere region stains more darkly with dyes than the other regions of a chromosome. Key Takeaways Centromeres are regions on a chromosome that join sister chromatids whose primary function is for the attachment of spindle fibers in cell division.While centromeres are typically located in the central area of a chromosome, they can also be located near the mid-region or at a number of different positions on the chromosome.Specialized zones on centromeres called kinetochores attach the chromosomes to spindle fibers in prophase in mitosis.Kinetochores have protein complexes that generate kinetochore fibers. These fibers help to orient and separate chromosomes during cell division.In meiosis, in metaphase I, the centromeres of homologous chromosomes are oriented toward opposite cell poles while in meiosis II, spindle fibers extending from both cell poles attach to sister chromatids at their centromeres. Centromere Location A centromere is not always located in the central area of a chromosome. A chromosome is comprised of a short arm region (p arm) and a long arm region (q arm) that are connected by a centromere region. Centromeres may be located near the mid-region of a chromosome or at a number of positions along the chromosome. ​ Metacentric centromeres are located near the chromosome center.Submetacentric centromeres are non-centrally located so that one arm is longer than the other.Acrocentric centromeres are located near the end of a chromosome.Telocentric centromeres are found at the end or telomere region of a chromosome. The position of the centromere is readily observable in a human karyotype of homologous chromosomes. Chromosome 1 is an example of a metacentric centromere, chromosome 5 is an example of a submetacentric centromere, and chromosome 13 is an example of an acrocentric centromere. Chromosome Segregation in Mitosis Prior to the start of mitosis, the cell enters a stage known as interphase where it replicates its DNA in preparation for cell division. Sister chromatids are formed that are joined at their centromeres.In prophase of mitosis, specialized regions on centromeres called kinetochores attach chromosomes to spindle polar fibers. Kinetochores are composed of a number of protein complexes that generate kinetochore fibers, which attach to spindle fibers. These fibers help to manipulate and separate chromosomes during cell division.During metaphase, chromosomes are held at the metaphase plate by the equal forces of the polar fibers pushing on the centromeres.During anaphase, paired centromeres in each distinct chromosome begin to move apart as daughter chromosomes are pulled centromere first toward opposite ends of the cell.During telophase, newly formed nuclei enclose separated daughter chromosomes. After cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm), two distinct daughter cells are formed. Chromosome Segregation in Meiosis In meiosis, a cell goes through two stages of the dividing process. These stages are meiosis I and meiosis II. During metaphase I, the centromeres of homologous chromosomes are oriented toward opposite cell poles. This means that homologous chromosomes will attach at their centromere regions to spindle fibers extending from only one of the two cell poles.When spindle fibers shorten during anaphase I, homologous chromosomes are pulled toward opposite cell poles but sister chromatids remain together.In meiosis II, spindle fibers extending from both cell poles attach to sister chromatids at their centromeres. Sister chromatids are separated in anaphase II when spindle fibers pull them toward opposite poles. Meiosis results in the division, separation, and distribution of chromosomes among four new daughter cells. Each cell is haploid, containing only half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. Centromere Anomalies Centromeres play an important role by participating in the separation process for chromosomes. Their structure however, can make them possible sites for chromosome rearrangements. Keeping the integrity of centromeres intact is thus an important job for the cell. Centromere anomalies have been linked to various diseases like cancer.

Unit 5 Biology - 1810 Words

39) Name the specific type of plant tissue or cell that performs the following functions: a) waterproofing the surface layer Endodermos b) rapidly dividing into new cells Mitosis c) transporting sugars throughout the plant Phloem 40)Maple syrup is produces from the sap moving in the xylem of maple trees in the early spring. How would taking too much sap in the spring harm the maple tree? That sap is an energy store to give it a strong start in spring. If you take too much, that is less energy for the tree to use. 41) A number of plants are currently being stydies for use in cleaning up land sites contanining toxic substances. a)name the technique of using plants for this purpose Phytoremediation†¦show more content†¦b)self-pollination Would always result in the same type of plant, but higher chance of survival because it can reproduce by itself rather than having to have other plants around. 50) 51) A botanist wanted to see if a new strain of corn could germinate in soil that was too salty for regular corn. She conducted a study on the germination success of seeds from the new strain that were exposed to various levels of salty soil, from zero to normal (100mg/L) to high (200 mg/L) to very high (400 mg/L) to normally lethal (800 mg/L) a) Write a formal hypothesis for this study. b) Does her data support or reject the hypothesis? Explain. If the answer is love then corn definitely doesnt love normally lethal concentrations :). On a more serious note: Lets say a valid hypothesis will be: The new strain of corn is able to germinate successfully and tolerate salt concentrations which are normally lethal for regular corn plants. Now, in order to actually measure this hypothesis, you would need results for salt tolerance of regular corn as well because only with these results you dont have anything to compare it against. 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Fourth Amendment Protections And Denials - 1299 Words

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Web Standards and Regulatory Compliance

Question: Discuss about the Web Standards and Regulatory Compliance. Answer: Introduction: The problem domain for this project is web development. The project focuses on developing a blog and blog entries that focus on SEO. As an emerging technology, SEO is the main factor influencing that affect web ranking and web traffic received in many websites. SEO is a core web strategy that has been adopted by many companies including ecommerce companies. Through SEO, websites gain more visibility and can be visited by many people (Parikh, 2013). In this project, a blog will be developed to inform SEO enthusiasts and experts about SEO techniques such as social media marketing, content curation, back linking, on-page optimization, and others. Methodology The research methodology in this project requires gathering relevant data from the stakeholders in order to analyze the material and get a complete understanding of the project requirements. The methodology focuses on shedding light on the scope of the project work and the key requirements defining project milestones. The project will utilize quantitative data collection tools that focus on obtaining specific data related to expectations and needs of the stakeholders. Additionally, it emphasizes on building a relation between stakeholder expectations and the project requirements. Research and System Development Method The project will be implemented with an agile development method to minimize the risk of project delays. The blog will be developed in iterations lasting several days which will include all tasks essential in releasing an increment of new functionality. While an iteration may not be enough to complete a particular functionality, the project will be capable of releasing a new addition to existing functionality after every iteration. The agile method used in the project emphasize on including all project team members in finishing the blog (Nerur, 2007). The functionality of the blog and the number of blog entries will be the primary measure of the project progress. Data collection methods The project will involve various data collection methods in stakeholder analysis. The methods used include one-on-one interviews and focus group discussion. In one-on-one interviews, stakeholders including project sponsor will be interviewed to obtain information essential in the analysis. The interview will focus on project activities and objective. Focus group discussion will involve inviting project stakeholders to give their opinions on project objectives. In the discussion, each participant will contribute by giving their opinions and participants will not only concur or agree but also focus on building opinions expressed. Ethical Issues The main ethical issue in this project is content plagiarism. Content curation is part of the project which will involve creating blog entries on SEO. Plagiarism in any creative work is an ethical issue which can adversely affect the project in terms of delays. To mitigate the risks associated with this issue, the blog entries created as part of the project will be checked for plagiarism before they are published. Additionally, the blog entries will be referenced and quoted if external sources used in developing the blog content. Compliance Requirements The blog created will have to meet all the requirements in web accessibility legislation. This regulation requires websites to adopt practices that improve access to websites for people with disabilities such as people who are visually impaired (Rutter, 2007). As such, the project will have to follow all web accessibility principles to increase the usability of the blog and give all users equal access to information published. Some of the guidelines followed in the project include web content accessibility guidelines. Analysis of Data Relevant collected from the project stakeholders will be analyzed to identify functional and non-functional requirements for the project. Data collected will be analyzed based on the scope of the project to indicate the stakeholder expectations and develop project milestones to be achieved. Additionally, project objectives and tasks will be developed from the data analyzed. Deliverables The following are the deliverables that will be achieved at the end of the project: Functional blog that meets stakeholders expectations Responsive blog that is usable and accessible to all types of users Blog includes several blog posts focusing on SEO Software tools The project will primarily use WordPress as the platform for building the blog. Wordpress will be used to add a theme to the blog, enhance functionality, and increase the usability of the blog. The blog will include various WordPress features such as plugins to enhance its functionality and outlook. Conclusion The project objectives will be realized once all tasks defined are completed. The expected duration of the project is 29 days. During project implementation, the progress of the project will be evaluated based on the milestones achieved. A continuous assessment of project tasks will be conducted to ensure they are completed within the allocated timeframe. Additionally, the project manager will coordinate with the team members to address any issues that may arise during the project. Recommendations The project team can adopt a rapid application development model which will involve closely cooperating with all the stakeholders including project sponsor throughout the project lifecycle. Under this model, the team can show the project sponsor a prototype of the blog after completion of every phase. Work breakdown Structure Task Name Responsibility 1. Project Planning Project Manager 1.1 Requirements Gathering 1.2 Schedule Development 2. User Interface Design Front-end Developer 2.1 Selecting Wordpress Theme 2.2 Installing Wordpress Theme 2.3 Customizing Theme 3. Functionality Configuration Back-end developer 3.1 Select and Install Wordpress Plugins 3.2 Configure Plugins 4. Content Curation Copywriter 4.1 Develop Content Schedule 4.2 SEO Copywriting Risk Analysis Risk Description Probability (1=low,5=high) Impact (1=low,5=high) Rank Price of theme is too high 2 2 5 Unable to find skillful wordpress developers 1 5 1 Developers are not on time 3 4 3 Project Manager does not have enough experience 4 4 2 Prototype fails to meet expectations 4 3 4 References Nerur, S., Balijepally, V. (2007). Theoretical reflections on agile development methodologies.Communications of the ACM,50(3), 79-83. Parikh, A., Deshmukh, S. (2013, November). Search Engine Optimization. InInternational Journal of Engineering Research and Technology(Vol. 2, No. 11 (November-2013)). ESRSA Publications. Rutter, R., Lauke, P. H., Waddell, C., Thatcher, J., Henry, S. L., Lawson, B., ... Urban, M. (2007).Web accessibility: Web standards and regulatory compliance. Apress.